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Substrate level phosphorylation is the  direct synthesis of ATP (or GTP) from ADP (or GDP)  using energy released from a  high-energy substrate   without  involvement of the electron transport chain. Examples with real data: Glycolysis: Reaction:  Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) → Pyruvate Enzyme:  Pyruvate kinase ATP formed:  1 ATP per reaction (net 2 ATP per glucose from glycolysis) TCA Cycle: Reaction:  Succinyl‑CoA → Succinate Enzyme:  Succinyl‑CoA synthetase GTP formed:  1 GTP per cycle (equivalent to ATP) 🔹  Key point:  It occurs in the  cytosol  (glycolysis) and  mitochondrial matrix  (TCA cycle) and is independent of oxidative phosphorylation. Short Answer: It is the direct formation of ATP (or GTP) from ADP (or GDP) using energy from a high‑energy substrate, without the electron transport chain. Example:  In glycolysis, phosphoenolpyruvate → pyruvate produces ATP.

Synthesis of Glucose from Amino Acids (Gluconeogenesis) Definition:  Conversion of  glucogenic amino acids  into  glucose  via gluconeogenesis. Process: Glucogenic amino acids  (e.g., alanine, glutamine) are  deaminated  to form  pyruvate  or  TCA cycle intermediates  (e.g., oxaloacetate). These intermediates enter the  gluconeogenic pathway  in the  liver  (and kidney). Final product is  glucose , released into blood to maintain blood sugar. Example with real pathway : Alanine → Pyruvate → Oxaloacetate → Phosphoenolpyruvate → Glucose This is called the  glucose-alanine cycle . Key enzymes: Alanine transaminase (ALT) Pyruvate carboxylase PEP carboxykinase Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase Glucose-6-phosphatase Short Answer: Glucogenic amino acids (e.g., alanine, glutamine) are deaminated to form pyruvate or TCA intermediates, which via gluconeogenesis in liver/kidney form glucose. Example: Alanine → Pyru...

Organ producing urea:   Liver  (via the  urea cycle ). Normal blood urea level:   15–40 mg/dL  ( 2.5–6.7 mmol/L ). ✅  Tip:  10–20 mg/dL is often quoted in some labs, but values vary slightly with diet, hydration, and lab methods.

Normal Serum Level of Total Protein: 6.0 – 8.0 g/dL  (average normal value) Two Important Functions of Protein: Maintenance of osmotic pressure  (mainly by albumin, prevents edema). Transport function  (binds and carries hormones, lipids, metal ions, e.g., transferrin for iron).

Hepatic Jaundice  – A type of jaundice that occurs due to  damage or disease of the liver cells (hepatocytes) , leading to impaired uptake, conjugation, or excretion of bilirubin. Bilirubin in blood:  Both  conjugated (direct)  and  unconjugated (indirect)  bilirubin are raised. Urine:  Dark-colored (due to conjugated bilirubin),  urobilinogen increased Example:   Viral hepatitis  or  alcoholic liver disease .